Years of Change

The forces of history may seem chaotic and devoid of all meaning to those living through it. Like a flood that washes away the memory of a bygone era. It is only when seeing through the eyes of the soldiers and kings, the statesmen and artisans who came before, that our conquest of liberty begins to rhyme and a mortal existence transforms into the eternity of a poem.

-3100

The Sumerians, a people of unknown origin, form the first city-states in the south of Mesopotamia, the land on the Euphrates and Tigris. They develop the first ever written form, cuneiform writing, which soon spread throughout the Middle East.

-3000

The wheel is invented independently in Europe and the Near East.

-2657

With the accession to power of the Ill dynasty, which includes Djoser, the builder of the step pyramid, the Old Kingdom begins in Egypt and will last until 2120 BC.

-2589

Snefru founds the IV Dynasty in Egypt, from which the pharaohs Khufu, Chephren and Menkaure, the builders of the pyramids of Giza, come from.

-2370

Sargon the Great founds the first Semitic empire in Mesopotamia, the Empire of Akkad. It will be destroyed by the Guteans around 2190 BC.

-2046

Pharaoh Mentuhotep II founds the Middle Kingdom in Egypt with the capital Thebes. It will reach the peak of its power during the XII Dynasty 70 years later.

-1850

The Epic of Gilgamesh is created in Mesopotamia, following older Sumerian predecessors, as the first major epic in world literature in the Babylonian language. However, it will only acquired its canonical form as a twelve-panel epic in the last third of the 2nd millennium BC.

-1813

Shamshi-Adad I takes office. He is considered the founder of the Assyrian Empire with its center in northern Mesopotamia.

-1792

Hammurabi takes over the government. Under his rule, the Old Babylonian Empire, centered in central Mesopotamia, reaches the peak of its power. His expansive Code of Hammurabi contains criminal-, family-, property- and commercial law for the complex Babylonian society. Hammurabi’s eye for an eye principle restricts the violence of vengeful people by calling for reciprocal justice.

-1766

According to a tradition that will be established later, the first dynasty Shang begins its rule in China, lasting until 1122 BC. The first Chinese writing is created during this time.

-1650

With the invasion of the Hyksos, who use spoked wheels for their chariots for the first time, the Middle Kingdom in Egypt ends.

-1550

Pharaoh Ahmose I, founder of the XVIII dynasty, the most important in Egyptian history, founds the New Kingdom.

-1468

The Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III defeats a coalition of Syrian princes with the Mitanni king at Megiddo and then subjugates Syria, Palestine and Transjordan, which will remain under Egyptian influence until the late 12th century BC.

-1400

BC For unknown reasons, the Minoan culture dies out on Crete. It was the oldest written based civilisation in Europe. Knossos is destroyed.

-1351

Pharaoh Amenhotep IV, husband of Nefertiti, ascends the throne in Egypt. He temporarily introduces a sole imperial god, Aton, worshiped in the form of the sun.

-1323

The young Pharaoh Tutankhamun, who restored the traditional polytheism in Egypt, dies. His almost intact grave will be discovered in 1922 by the British archaeologist Howard Carter.

-1279

Pharaoh Ramses II, greatest of all Egyptian rulers, takes over the government.

-1250

Moses leads his people out of Egypt, receives God's revelation at Mount Sinai and, before he dies, sees the Promised Land from Mount Nebo.

-1200

The Hittite Empire in Asia Minor, which has existed since the 18th century BC, succumbs to the onslaught of the Sea Peoples.

-1200

The Phoenicians invent a new type of writing made up of letters.

-1100

The Mycenaean culture in the Peloponnese dies out as a result of the immigration of the Dorians.

-1070

The New Kingdom in Egypt ends with Ramses XI. The country then breaks up into small states.

-1004

David founds the Kingdom of Israel, the first state of the Jewish people.

-926

After the death of King Solomon, the Jewish kingdom splits into a northern state of Israel (capital Samaria) and a southern state of Judah (capital Jerusalem).

-814

Carthage is founded by the Phoenicians and will become one of the most important trading hubs of the Mediterranean.

-800

In Greece, Europe's first alphabet is developed from the Phoenician alphabet. All later European scripts will be derived from it. The first surviving epic poems in Europe, the Iliad and the Odyssey by Homer are also written around this time.

-776

The Olympic Games, which will be held every four years and play a crucial role in evoking the idea of the unity of Greece (regardless of its political fragmentation) are held for the first time. They will be held for the last time in 393.

-753

Rome is founded this year and is initially under the control of Etruscan kings.

-722

The Assyrians destroy the Jewish northern state of Israel under King Hosea.

-612

Nabopolassar, founder of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, conquers the Assyrian capital Nineveh. The Assyrian Empire ends three years later.

-600

Coins began to be minted in Lydia. From there the technology first spreads to the Greek colonies on the west coast of Asia Minor, and later throughout the Mediterranean region.

-595

Pharaoh Necho II dies. He is considered the initiator of the first circumnavigation of Africa by Phoenician sailors, which started in the Red Sea, and the builder of the first canal from the Nile to the Red Sea.

-587

The Neo-Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II conquers the Jewish southern state under King Zedekiah and has its upper class deported to Mesopotamia.

-547

King Cyrus the Great, founder of the Persian empire, defeats the Lydian king Croesus and annexes his empire. Afterwards, the Greek colonies on the west coast of Asia Minor also come under Persian rule.

-539

The Persian king Cyrus the Great destroys the Neo-Babylonian Empire. He allows the Jews who were deported to Babylonia to return home. The Second Temple is then built in Jerusalem.

-525

The Persian king Cambyses incorporates Egypt into his empire and thereby finally ends its great era.

-525

The philosopher Pythagoras of Samos develops theorems in geometry, astronomy and music theory.

-510

After the overthrow of its last king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, Rome becomes a republic.

-507

The development of popular rule (democracy) in Athens begins with Cleisthenes' constitutional reforms.

-490

The Athenians defeat the forces of the Persian king Darius the Great, which had advanced into Greece, at Marathon.

-480

Buddha (Sanskrit: the enlightened one) the Indian religious founder dies. The only missionary religion in Asia will develop from his teachings and spread throughout India, China and the world shaped by the latter culture (Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Tibet).

-479

With the double victory of Salamis at sea and Plataea on land, the Greeks defend their freedom against the Persian king Xerxes.

The Chinese philosopher Confucius dies. His teachings will only develop into the state doctrine of China and other East Asian empires long after his death. Confucianism represents a personalised ethic in which ancestor worship, integration of the individual into the community, achievement and a sense of duty have central importance. It will form the intellectual basis for the lead that East Asia maintains over all other civilisations in the world until the First Industrial Revolution, and also for the region's resurgence in the 21st century.

-472

The Persians by the Attic poet Aeschylus, the creator of modern tragedy, is performed for the first time.

-444

Heredotus of Halicarnassus, the "father of historiography" (according to Cicero), settles in the Attic colony of Thurii in southern Italy after extensive travels.

-438

After more than 10 years of construction, the Pantheon on the Acropolis of Athens is completed and will have a style-defining effect on the ancient world.

-431

In the year the war breaks out, Thucydides from Athens begins his work on the Peloponnesian War. This is the first record of contemporary political historiography.

-425

The first surviving comedy, The Acharnians from Aristophanes is performed in Athens.

-420

The work of Hippocrates of Kos, the most famous doctor of antiquity, reaches its climax. He is considered the founder of scientific medicine.

-404

The Peloponnesian War, which has been going on since 431 BC, ends in the total triumph of the land power Sparta over Athens, which until then had dominated the sea.

-396

Rome's expansion begins with the capture and destruction of the Etruscan rival city of Veii.

-386

Plato, a student of Socrates, who was executed in 399 BC, founds a school of philosophy, the Academy, in the sanctuary of the Hero Academus in Athens. It will be closed in 529 by Emperor Justinian

-342

Aristotle of Stageira, a student at Plato's Academy and the most influential philosopher up to modern times, becomes the teacher of the Macedonian Crown Prince Alexander.

-338

Philip II, King of the Macedonian, ends the independence of the Greek polis with his victory at Chaeronea.

-333

Alexander the Great, King of the Macedonians, wins his first major triumph at Issus on his "campaign of revenge" against the Persians.

-332

Alexander the Great conquers Egypt and founds Alexandria, the most important city of that name.

-330

After another victory over the Persian king at Gaugamela, Alexander the Great destroys the Persian Empire with the main residences of Susa, Ecbatana and Persepolis and becomes "King of Asia" himself. In doing so, he expands the European (Greek) cultural sphere to include the entire Middle East.

-326

Alexander the Great advances to India on his conquest, but is forced to turn back by his own army.

-323

Alexander the Great dies in Babylon. His empire collapses in the ensuing battle between his rival successors, the Diadochi. However, the Greek cultural influence will intensify throughout the entire Eastern Mediterranean (Hellenism).

-312

For strategic military reasons, the Romans build their first road from Rome to Capua in Campania (via Appia). It will later be extended via Benevento to Brindisi.

-305

With the acceptance of the title of king by two of the victorious Diadochi, the Ptolemaic Empire in Egypt (until 30 BC) and the Seleucid Empire in Syria and Mesopotamia (until 64 BC) emerged as the successor to the Alexander Empire.

-300

The mathematician Euclid, author of a textbook on geometry that has remained relevant to modern times, teaches in Alexandria, where the most famous library of antiquity will be founded a few years later.

-285

A bronze statue of the sun god is erected above the entrance to the harbour in Rhodes. As the Colossus of Rhodes, it is considered one of the Seven Wonders of the World alongside the Pyramids of Giza, the Hanging Gardens of Semiramis in Babylon, the Temple of Artemis in Ephesus, the statue of Zeus in Olympia, the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus and the Pharos of Alexandria

-268

Emperor Ashoka ascends the throne. Under him, the first Indian empire built by Chandragupta Maurya with its capital Pataliputra (Patna) reaches its peak. It covers the entire subcontinent except for the extreme south. The state religion is Buddhism.

-264

The First Punic War between Rome and Carthage was sparked by conflicts in Sicily.

-248

Eratosthenes, author of a work on the measurement of the earth and founder of the theory of the spherical shape of the earth, is appointed head of the library in Alexandria.

-241

The Romans win decisively over the Carthage fleet in the Aegates Islands, thus ending the First Punic War, which had lasted since 264 BC. They then acquire their first province, Sicily (excluding the Syracuse area). Four years later, Sardinia and Corsica will also become Roman.

-238

Arsaces I founds the Parthian Empire in Persia under the Arsacid dynasty, which will also include Mesopotamia after 129 BC. For centuries it will remain Rome's most powerful rival.

-221

Shihuangdi, founder of the Qin dynasty, becomes the first ruler to unify all of China by adopting the new title "Emperor", thereby establishing a tradition of the longest largely continuous empire in world history that will exist to this day. He standardises coins, measurements and writing and sets up a permanent capital in Xianyang. His grave with the famous army of 7,500 Terracotta Warriors will be fully opened until 1976.

-218

The Second Punic War between Rome and Carthage begins. On his way from Spain, the Carthaginian general Hannibal crosses the Alps with war elephants and achieves his first victory over the Roman contingent at the Trebbia.

-216

The Carthaginian general Hannibal defeats the Roman army at Cannae in Apulia. It is the worst defeat in Roman history up to that point.

-212

The Romans, who have since united all of Sicily under their rule, conquer Syracuse. The famous mathematician Archimedes gets killed in the process.

-202

Emperor Gaozu founds the Han Dynasty (capital Xian), which will rule China with only a short interruption until 202. During this period, the identity of the Chinese people is formed as being Han Chinese.

-201

After the victory of their general Scipio at Zama, the Romans end the Second Punic War victoriously. Carthage, which thereby loses its great power status, must hand over its fleet and vacate all positions on the Iberian Peninsula.

-197

The Romans establish two provinces on the Iberian Peninsula. The area is subsequently thoroughly latinised. The romanesque character of Spain and Portugal comes from here.

-168

The Romans defeat the last Macedonian king Perseus at Pydna. His empire is dissolved. By 146 BC, all of Greece (temporarily excluding Sparta and Thesaly) will be incorporated into the Roman Republic.

-146

At the end of the Third Punic War, Carthage is completely defeated. The Romans have the city destroyed and establish the Africa Province on former Carthaginian soil. For centuries this will be the granary of the Roman Civilisation.

-133

The Romans conquer the interior of the Iberian Peninsula and acquire the Pergamene Empire, where they will establish the Asia Province in 129 BC.

-111

With the acquisition of Guangzhou, China expands under the Han Emperor Wudi to the South China Sea. Two years later even Korea will be made tributary.

-104

The high priest of Jerusalem, a Hasmonean, assumes the title of king. This creates a new Jewish State.

-104

Marius, victor over the Cimbri and Teutons, carries out fundamental military reform in the Roman Republic as consul. The popular army is abolished in favour of a standing professional army.

-100

Trade between the Mediterranean world and Asia (India and China) is rapidly intensifying. Because Europe has almost no goods to offer in exchange, precious metal continues to flow out to Asia until the 18th century.

-64

The Romans under Pompey conquer the remnants of the Seleucid Empire and annex it as the province of Syria. They establish a protectorate over the Jewish state. In doing so, they complete the unity of the Mediterranean world under their rule.

-51

After a long struggle, Gaius Julius Caesar finally subjugates all of Gaul and incorporates it into the Roman Republic, which predetermines the Romanesque character of later France.

-45

After several victories over his republican opponents at Pharsalus, Thapsus and Munda, Gaius Julius Caesar de facto establishes the monarchy in the Roman Republic as dictator for life. He carries out a fundamental calendar reform based on the solar year (Julian calendar).

-44

Gaius Julius Caesar is assassinated in the Senate by opponents of his dictatorial rule in Rome on the Ides of March.

-42

As Caesar's heirs, Marcus Antonius and Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus triumph over Caesar's murderers Brutus and Cassius near Philippi in Thrace.

-30

After a naval victory over Marcus Antonius and Queen Cleopatra's Egyptian fleet near Actium, Octavian victoriously enters Alexandria. This ends the age of civil wars in the Roman Republic. Octavian becomes sole ruler.

-27

The Senate gives Octavian the honorary name Augustus. The Republic becomes and Empire with a single ruler (Principate).

-19

The Roman poet Virgil dies and leaves behind the Aeneid, written since 29 BC. The traditional Roman heroic epic becomes the most widely received work of ancient poetry.

-8

The Roman poet Horace dies. His work, most notably the Odes, represents a highlight of Roman literature.

Journey beyond the year 0 to the present day and uncover powerful historical insights in a captivating exploration through time and space. Dive deeper with the exclusive appendix, Civilization Applications, revealing how to turn history into real-world change.